Linking Words
1. What are they?
Linking words are words that join two or more words, sentences or clauses. Linking words are also called conjunctions.
Linking words can express different ideas, for example,
- contrast: however, although, but
addition: and, more, besides
purpose: in order to, so that
reason: since, because
result: as a result, consequently
time: when, after, before, since, by the time, as soon as
condition: if, provided, as long as, unless
reason: because, since, as
purpose: to, in order to, so that
contrast: but, although, however, whereas
addition: and, besides, as well, too, also
result: so … that, such a … that, because of, consequently
manner: as if, as though
comparison: as … as, than
place: where, somewhere, wherever
2. Linking words of contrast
a) However, nevertheless, whereas and while
We use however and nevertheless to connect to clauses or sentences. Nevertheless is more formal. However can go at the beginning, middle or end of the sentence.
I trust you. However, I won’t tell you my secret.
I love animals. I don’t like insect, however.
We prefer to cook at home. Sometimes, however, we eat out.
He robbed a bank. Nevertheless, the police never caught him.
Whereas and while mean ‘on the contrary’. They are usually used in formal speech.
I like tea whereas Frank prefers coffee.
While I understand your point, I totally disagree with your decision.
b) Although, though and even though
Although, though and even though are synonyms and are used to show contrast. Though can be used at the end of the sentence:
Although it was raining, we went out for a walk.
Even though he left the house late, he could catch the train.
He went to the party although he was tired.
I like cats. (But) I also like dogs, though.
c) In spite of and despite
In spite of and despite are used to express contrast. We use them the following way:
in spite of + noun
despite + -ing
+ the fact that + clause + comma
Despite his success, he remained a shy person.
In spite of his success, he lives a quiet life.
Despite the fact that he succeeded in life, he is a shy person.
3. The infinitive of purpose
a) To infinitive
We can use the to infinitive to express purpose (why?).
I went to the shop to buy some fruits. (Why? To buy some fruits.)
Peter studies hard to pass his exam.
She switched off the light not to waste electricity.
Note: The subject of the two verbs is the same: I went and I bought.
Note: In the negative, we use not to.
b) In order to and so as to
If we want to express purpose, we can also use in order (not) to and so as (not) to. They are the formal version of to.
in order to
He turned the radio on so as to listen to the news.
to
She closed the window in order not to hear the noise.
We wrote down the address so as not to forget it.
c) In order that and so that
If the grammatical subjects of the two parts of the sentence are different, we use so, in order that and so that.
I emailed the photos to Jane so that she could look at them.
Frank cleaned the house in order that he could make Jane happy.
We bought the tickets online so we could save money.
Note: We often use could in the second clause of the sentence.
d) For
We use for to describe how something is used. We have to use for+noun or for+gerund.
This switch is for the electricity.
This course is for learning about grammar.
I went to the office for a meeting.
We went out for a meal.
4. Linking words of reason:
a) Because, as, since
When we want to express the reason for something, we can use because, as or since. They have the same meaning but usually because is stronger than as and since.
They can start the sentence, or they can go in the middle of the sentence. However, only because can start an answer to a question.
I made a sandwich because/as/since I was hungry.
Because/since/as I was hungry, I made a sandwich.
Note: ‘Why did you make a sandwich?’
‘Because/as/since I was hungry.’
b) So, therefore
So and therefore mean ‘for this reason’. Other expressions we can use: consequently, as a result, because of that, hence.
I wanted to talk to my friend so I phoned her.
I wanted to talk to my friend. Therefore/Consequently, I phoned her.
Compare: I phoned my friend because I wanted to talk to her.
c) Due to, as a result, etc.
When we want to talk about the reason for something, we can use the following expressions: due to, as a result of, owing to, because of, on account of , thanks to.
We have to use a noun or a gerund after these expressions.
due to
as a result of his lottery win.
He bought a Ferrari owing to winning the lottery.
because of
on account of
thanks to
5. Linking words of result
a) So
To express the result of an action, we can use so. It shows cause and effect.
so + adjective / adverb + that
so + many/much/few/little + noun + that
He was walking so slowly that he missed the bus.
She was so clever that she passed all her exams easily.
There were so many people on the train that we couldn’t sit down.
b) Such
Such is used in the same meaning as so but in the following construction:
such + (adjective) + uncount noun + that
such + a(n) + (adjective) + singular count noun + that
such + (adjective) + plural count noun + that
It was such nice weather that we just wanted to sit in the park.
He was such a nice person that he helped everyone.
They were such lovely people that we really enjoyed talking to them.
c) Too
Too means ‘more than needed’. We can use it to express cause and effect.
too + adjective/adverb (+ to infinitive / for someone)
too + many/much
too + many/much + noun (+ to infinitive / for someone)
This house is too big for our family.
He is too shy to ask questions.
‘How many cars does Frank have?’ ‘Too many.’
d) Enough
Enough means ‘sufficient’. We can use it to express cause and effect.
adjective + enough + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
adverb + enough + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
enough + noun + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
We had enough money to buy a huge pizza.
He run fast enough to cross the line first.
Peter had enough cups and plates for the party.
